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composition The complete arrangement of a scene by the director. The process includes camera angles, lighting, properties, characters, and the movement of the actors.
depth (of field/focus) The range of a camera lens. Depth of field refers to the distance furthest away from a lens in which the objects being photographed will remain in focus approaching infinity. Depth of focus refers to the closest proximity to the lens in which the objects being photographed will remain in focus approaching the infinitesimal.
frame Each individual photographic image making up the film. Also refers to the area of the picture seen on the screen.
framing The size and position of objects relative to the edges of the screen; the arrangement of objects so that they fit within the actual boundaries of the film.
frontality The placing of the camera at a 90º angle to the action.
mise-en-scene Everything placed within the frame, including set decoration, costume, and styles of performance (implies an emphasis on psychological and visual unity in a film from one frame to the next). See narrative style.
off camera Out of the boundaries of the camera’s field of vision (although a performer’s presence may be indicated by the context of the scene or their presence in dialogue).
180º rule The convention that the camera can be placed in any position as long as it remains on one side of the action. This rule is often broken in films today.
racking focus A shift in focus between planes at different distances from the camera within the same shot.
process shot A shot made of action in front of a rear projection screen having on it still or moving images as a background. Most commonly used in scenes that involve driving or riding in an automobile.
selective focus Rendering only part of the action field in sharp focus through the use of a shallow depth of field. A shift of focus from foreground to background or vice versa is called rack focus.
set A constructed environment in which to shoot a scene: often consists of flat backdrops or facades, but can be a three-dimensional construction.
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aerial shot A camera shot filmed from an airplane, helicopter, blimp, balloon, kite or high building (higher than a crane).
close-up A shot in which a smallish object (e.g. the human head) fits easily within the frame.MCU (Medium Close-Up): head and shoulders. BCU (Big Close-Up): forehead to chin. Close-ups focus attention on a person's feelings or reactions, and are sometimes used in interviews to show people in a state of emotional excitement, grief or joy. In interviews, the use of BCUs may emphasise the interviewee's tension and suggest lying or guilt. BCUs are rarely used for important public figures; MCUs are preferred, the camera providing a sense of distance. Note that in western cultures the space within about 24 inches (60 cm) is generally felt to be private space, and BCUs may be invasive.
establishing shot A long shot, often the first in a sequence, which establishes the positions of elements relative to each other and identifies the setting and used to set the scene.
extreme close-up A shot in which a small object (e.g. a part of the body) fits easily within the frame.
long shot A shot in which a large object (e.g. a complete person) fits easily within the frame.
medium shot A shot in which a medium-size object (e.g. the top half of a human figure) fits easily within the frame. Bottom of the frame passes through the waist of the actor.
medium close shot The setting can still be seen. The lower frame line passes through the chest of the actor. Medium shots are frequently used for the tight presentation of two actors (the two shot), or with dexterity three (the three shot).
medium long shot A shot in which a largish object (e.g. the human figure from lower leg up) fits easily within the frame.
POV (point of view shot) A shot which is understood to be seen from the point of view of a character within the scene.
reaction shot A close-up in which an actor or group is seen to respond to an event, often accomplished with a cutaway from the primary action to someone viewing the occurrence.
tilted shot When the camera is tilted on its axis so that normally vertical lines appear slanted to the left or right, ordinary expectations are frustrated. Such shots are often used in mystery and suspense films to create a sense of unease in the viewer.
two shot A shot in which two actors appear within the frame.
wide-angle shot, wide shot A shot of a broad field of action taken with a wide-angle lens.
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angle of shot The position of the camera on a vertical continuum relative to the object being shot:
eye-level, high-angle (looking down from above), low-angle (looking up from below), Dutch-angle (with the normal vertical axis tilted diagonally). The direction and height from which the camera takes the scene. The convention is that in 'factual' programs subjects should be shot from eye-level only. In a high angle the camera looks down at a character, making the viewer feel more powerful than him or her, or suggesting an air of detachment. A low angle shot places camera below the character, exaggerating his or her importance. An overhead shot is one made from a position directly above the action.
overhead angle A shot looking down vertically on the action from above. Also called a bird’s eye angle.
subjective angle A camera shot or film style that provides the audience with the specific vision or perspective of a character in the film (i.e. the technique of using POV).
reverse angle Two successive shots from equal and opposite angles, typically of characters during conversation. Also called shot/countershot.
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key light light that is the principal source of light on a scene
back light light that is added from a 45-degree angle from behind to give more definition and distinguish actors from the background
high-key when a scene has bright general illumination--used more for musicals, comedies, standard situations
low-key when a scene has less general illumination and heavier shadows--used to add atmosphere to dramas
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arc shot shot in which a moving camera circles round the subject being photographed.
crane shot A shot in which the camera rises above the ground on a mobile support.
hand-held A hand-held camera can produce a jerky, bouncy, unsteady image which may create a sense of immediacy or chaos. Its use is a form of subjective treatment. See steady-cam.
pan A movement in which the camera turns to right or left on a stationary horizontal axis. A pan usually begins and ends with a few seconds of still picture to give greater impact. The speed of a pan across a subject creates a particular mood as well as establishing the viewer's relationship with the subject. 'Hosepiping' is continually panning across from one person to another; it looks clumsy.
passing A shot producing a projected image that travels quickly across the screen, either by moving the subject past a stationary camera or by panning the camera past a stationary subject.
steady-cam A hand-held camera shot that uses gyro technology to eliminate the jerkiness that is usually caused by a traditional hand-held camera.
tilt A movement by which the camera moves up or down while its support remains fixed.
tracking Tracking involves the camera itself being moved smoothly towards or away from the subject (contrast with zooming). Tracking in (like zooming) draws the viewer into a closer, more intense relationship with the subject; moving away tends to create emotional distance. Tracking back tends to divert attention to the edges of the screen. The speed of tracking may affect the viewer's mood. Rapid tracking (especially tracking in) is exciting; tracking back relaxes interest. In a dramatic narrative we may sometimes be drawn forward towards a subject against our will. Camera movement parallel to a moving subject permits speed without drawing attention to the camera itself.
zoom The effect of rapid movement either towards or away from the subject being photographed, either by using a specialized zoom lens or by moving the camera on a boom, crane or dolly. Zoom effects can also be achieved and enhanced by the use of an optical printer. In most zooming the camera does not move; the lens is focused down from a long-shot to a close-up whilst the picture is still being shown. The subject is magnified, and attention is concentrated on details previously invisible as the shot tightens (contrast tracking). It may be used to surprise the viewer. Zooming out reveals more of the scene (perhaps where a character is, or to whom he or she is speaking) as the shot widens. Zooming in rapidly brings not only the subject but also the background hurtling towards the viewer, which can be disconcerting. Zooming in and then out creates an ugly 'yo-yo' effect.
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cut Sudden change of shot from one viewpoint or location to another. On television cuts occur on average about every 7 or 8 seconds. Cutting may: change the scene, compress time, vary the point of view, or build up an image or idea. There should always be a reason for a cut, and as a viewer you should ask what the reason is. Less abrupt transitions are achieved with the fade, dissolve, and wipe.
cutaway A bridging, intercut shot between two shots of the same subject. It represents a secondary activity occurring at the same time as the main action. It may be preceded by a definite look or glance out of frame by a participant, or it may show something of which those in the preceding shot are unaware. (See narrative style: parallel development.) It may be used to avoid the technical ugliness of a 'jump cut' where there would be uncomfortable jumps in time, place or viewpoint. It is often used to shortcut the passing of time.
continuity editing The conventions through which the impression of an unbroken continuum of space and time is suggested, constructing a consistent storyline out of takes made at different times.
bridging shot A shot that connects one scene to another by showing a change in time or location. A bridging shot can also be used to connect two shots from the same scene by using a close-up, distant pan or different camera angle thus relating the shots via content.
cross-cutting Swiftly cutting backwards and forwards between more than one scene.
crossing the line Breaking the 180º rule typical of continuity editing (see 180º rule).
dynamic cutting Combining a series of seemingly unrelated shots, objects, people, situations, details and characters in juxtaposition with one another (a form of montage, opposed to continuity cutting).or moving self-consciously, abruptly and startlingly between time or place.
fades, dissolve Both fades and dissolves are gradual transitions between shots. In a fade the picture gradually appears from (fades in) or disappears to (fades out) a blank screen. A slow fade-in is a quiet introduction to a scene; a slow fade-out is a peaceful ending. Time lapses are often suggested by a slow fade-out and fade-in. A dissolve (or mix) involves fading out one picture while fading up another on top of it. The impression is of an image merging into and then becoming another. A slow mix usually suggests differences in time and place. Defocus or ripple dissolves are sometimes used to indicate flashbacks in time.
graphic match A visual rhyme between two successive shots.
jump cut Abrupt switch from one scene to another which may be used deliberately to make a dramatic point. Sometimes boldly used to begin or end action. Alternatively, it may be result of poor pictorial continuity, perhaps from deleting a section.
long take A shot that is allowed to continue for longer than usual without editing.
match cut In a 'matched cut' a familiar relationship between the shots may make the change seem smooth: continuity of direction; completed action;* a similar centre of attention in the frame; a one-step change of shot size (e.g. long to medium); a change of angle (conventionally at least 30 degrees). *The cut is usually made on an action (for example, a person begins to turn towards a door in one shot; the next shot, taken from the doorway, catches him completing the turn). Because the viewer's eye is absorbed by the action one is unlikely to notice the movement of the cut itself.
montage Style of editing involving rapid cutting so that one image is juxtaposed with another or one scene quickly dissolves into the next. Angles, settings and framing are manipulated in a conspicuous way (violating coherent mise-en-scene) so as to convey a swift passage of time, to create some kind of visual or conceptual continuity, or to generate a distinctive rhythm. (See also dynamic cutting.)
motivated cut Cut made just at the point where what has occurred makes the viewer immediately want to see something which is not currently visible (causing us, for instance, to accept compression of time). A typical feature is the shot/reverse shot technique (cuts coinciding with changes of speaker). Editing and camera work appear to be determined by the action. It is intimately associated with the 'privileged point of view' (see narrative style: objectivity).
sequence shot A relatively long and complete scene shot in one take without editing (similar to long take).
shock cut The immediate juxtaposition of two incongruous shots (e.g. from a murder scene to a religious icon).
wipe An optical effect marking a transition between two shots. It appears to supplant an image by wiping it off the screen (as a line or in some complex pattern, such as by appearing to turn a page). The wipe is a technique which draws attention to itself and acts as a clear marker of change.
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external diegetic sound Sound which comes from out of frame, but is understood as belonging within the story space (unlike incidental music, which is extra-diegetic).
indigenous (parallel, synchronous, diegetic) sound Sound “caused” by some event on screen, and which matches the action.
nonindigenous (wildtrack, asynchronous, nondiegetic) sound Sound which was self-evidently recorded separately from the visuals with which it is shown. For example, a studio voice-over added to a visual sequence later.
music Music helps to establish a sense of the pace of the accompanying scene. The rhythm of music usually dictates the rhythm of the cuts. The emotional colouring of the music also reinforces the mood of the scene. Background music is asynchronous music which accompanies a film. It is not normally intended to be noticeable. Conventionally, background music accelerates for a chase sequence, becomes louder to underscore a dramatically important action. Through repetition it can also link shots, scenes and sequences. Foreground music is often synchronous music which finds its source within the screen events (e.g. from a radio, TV, stereo or musicians in the scene). It may be a more credible and dramatically plausible way of bringing music into a program than background music (a string orchestra sometimes seems bizarre in a Western).
narration The telling of a story and the information supplied to the audience by a voice-over coming from off screen who may or may not be a character in the story.
selected sound The removal of some sounds and the retention of others to make significant sounds more recognizable, or for dramatic effect - to create atmosphere, meaning and emotional nuance. Selected sound (and amplification) may make us aware of a watch or a bomb ticking. This can sometimes be a subjected device, leading us to identify with a character: to hear what he or she hears. Sound may be so selected that the lack of ambient sound can make it seem artificial or expressionistic.
sound bridge Adding to continuity through sound, by running sound (narration, dialogue or music) from one shot across a cut to another shot to make the action seem uninterrupted.
voice-over Voice heard while an image is projected but not being spoken in sync with one of the characters appearing on screen. Used to suggest a character’s thoughts or recall of something said earlier, or to provide objective (extra-diegetic) narrative or commentary.
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pace The tempo at which the storyline of a film unfolds, affected by various elements including action, the length of scenes, camera angles, colour levels, editing, lighting, composition and sound.
screen time A period of time represented by events within a film (e.g. a day, a week).
subjective time The time experienced or felt by a character in a film, as revealed through camera movement and editing (e.g. when a frightened person's flight from danger is prolonged).
compressed time The compression of time between sequences or scenes, and within scenes. This is the most frequent manipulation of time in films: it is achieved with cuts or dissolves. In a dramatic narrative, if climbing a staircase is not a significant part of the plot, a shot of a character starting up the stairs may then cut to him entering a room. The logic of the situation and our past experience of medium tells us that the room is somewhere at the top of the stairs. Long journeys can be compressed into seconds. Time may also be compressed between cutaways in parallel editing. More subtle compression can occur after reaction shots or close-ups have intervened. The use of dissolves was once a cue for the passage of a relatively long period of time. Long take. A single shot (or take, or run of the camera) which lasts for a relatively lengthy period of time. The long take has an 'authentic' feel since it is not inherently dramatic.
simultaneous time Events in different places can be presented as occurring at the same moment, by parallel editing or cross-cutting, by multiple images or split-screen. The conventional clue to indicate that events or shots are taking place at the same time is that there is no progression of shots: shots are either inserted into the main action or alternated with each other until the strands are somehow united.
slow motion Action which takes place on the screen at a slower rate than the rate at which the action took place before the camera. This is used: a) to make a fast action visible; b) to make a familiar action strange; c) to emphasize a dramatic moment. It can have a lyric and romantic quality or it can amplify violence.
accelerated motion Accelerated motion, or undercranking, is used: a) to make a slow action visible; b) to make a familiar action funny; c) to increase the thrill of speed. Reverse motion. Reproducing action backwards, for comic, magical or explanatory effect.
Replay. An action sequence repeated, often in slow motion, commonly featured in the filming of sport to review a significant event.
freeze-frame This gives the image the appearance of a still photograph. Clearly not a naturalistic device.
flashback A break in the chronology of a narrative in which events from the past are disclosed to the viewer. Formerly indicated conventionally with defocus or ripple dissolves.
flashforward Much less common than the flashback. Not normally associated with a particular character. Associated with objective treatments.
extended or expanded time Extended or expanded time/overlapping action. The expansion of time can be accomplished by intercutting a series of shots, or by filming the action from different angles and editing them together. Part of an action may be repeated from another viewpoint, e.g. a character is shown from the inside of a building opening a door and the next shot, from the outside, shows him opening it again. Used nakedly this device disrupts the audience's sense of real time. The technique may be used unobtrusively to stretch time, perhaps to exaggerate, for dramatic effect, the time taken to walk down a corridor. Sometimes combined with slow motion.
ambiguous time Within the context of a well-defined time-scheme sequences may occur which are ambiguous in time. This is most frequently communicated through dissolves and superimpositions.
universal time This is deliberately created to suggest universal relevance. Ideas rather than examples are emphasized. Context may be disrupted by frequent cuts and by the extensive use of close-ups and other shots which do not reveal a specific background.
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diegesis In terms of film, this is the entire created world and narration of a film. Everything within the story of the film. "Diegetic" -- refers to things which exist within the "world" of the film's narrative. Non-diegetic or extra-diegetic elements of a film do not "exist" or "take place" in the same plane of reality that the character's inhabit. For example, presumably the characters within an action film do not "hear" the rousing theme music that accompanies their exploits. that music is extra-diegetic, but still part of the film.
titles or text Any words that appear on the screen to convey information to the audience, including credit titles (identifying personnel), main title (the name of the film), end titles (closing credits), insert titles (announcing scenes or identifying settings) and subtitles (translation of foreign-language dialogue). Insert titles and subtitles can also be referred to as captions.
parallel action Aspects of a story happening simultaneously with the primary performer’s situation, edited so that the projected image goes back and forth between the primary and secondary scenes (often leading up to a convergence of the two actions).
photographed thought The photographing and inserting into a film story shots of what a character thinks, imagines or retells.
sequence A series of segments of a film edited together unified by a common setting, time, event or story-line.
subjective treatment The camera treatment is called 'subjective' when the viewer is treated as a participant (e.g. when the camera is addressed directly or when it imitates the viewpoint or movement of a character). We may be shown not only what a character sees, but also how he or she sees it. A temporary 'first-person' use of camera as the character can be effective in conveying unusual states of mind or powerful experiences, such as dreaming, remembering, or moving very fast. If overused, it can draw too much attention to the camera. Moving the camera (or zooming) is a subjective camera effect, especially if the movement is not gradual or smooth. See POV shot.
objective treatment The 'objective point of view' involves treating the viewer as an observer. A major example is the 'privileged point of view' which involves watching from omniscient vantage points. Keeping the camera still whilst the subject moves towards or away from it is an objective camera effect.
parallel development Parallel development/parallel editing/cross-cutting. An intercut sequence of shots in which the camera shifts back and forth between one scene and another. Two distinct but related events seem to be happening at approximately the same time. A chase is a good example. Each scene serves as a cutaway for the other. Adds tension and excitement to dramatic action.
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